ABBREVIATIONS Note: for ready reference, the five historical levels of Vedic are indicated by numbers (1-5), followed by their geographical location, W: western North India = Panjab, Haryana, C: central North India = Uttar Pradesh, E: eastern North India = N. Bihar; S: southern N. India = between the Jamna/Ganges and the Vindhya mountains). AA Austro-Asiatic AB aitareya brAhmaNa (4, W & E) Akkad. Akkadian ApDhS Apastamba dharmasUtra (5 C) ApZS Apastamba zrautasUtra (5 C) Armen. Armenian Austro-As. Austro-Asiatic AV atharvaveda saMhitA (2 C) Avest. Avestan AVP atharvaveda saMhitA, paippalAda version (2 W) Beng. Bengali Brah. Brahui BZS baudhAyana zrautasUtra (4-5 C) Bur. Burushaski CDIAL Turner 1966-69 DED Burrow, T. and Emeneau M.B. 1960 DEDR Burrow, T. and Emeneau M.B. 1984 Drav. Dravidian ep. Epic Sanskrit EWA Mayrhofer 1956-76 Gr. Greek GS gRhyasUtra(s) (5) Guj. Gujarati Hitt. Hittite HZS HiraNyakezi ZrautasUtra (5 C) IA Indo-Aryan IE Indo-European IIr Indo-Iranian Indo-Ar. Indo-Aryan Iran. Iranian JB jaiminIya brAhmaNa (4 S) Jpn. Japanese Kan. Kannada, Canarese Kazm. Kashmiri KaThA kaTha AraNyaka (4 W) KauzS. kauzika sUtra (5 C) KB kauSItaki brAhmaNa (4 C) KEWA Mayrhofer 1986-96 Khar. Kharia Khot. Khotanese Saka KS kaTha saMhitA KZS kAtyAyana zrautasUtra (5 E) Kur. Kurukh LZS LATyAyana ZrautasUtra Lit. Lithuanian Mal. Malayalam Mar. Marathi Mbh. mahAbhArata MIA Middle Indo-Aryan MP. Middle Persian MS maitrAyaNi saMhitA (2-3 W) MT Mother Tongue Mund. Mundari Nep. Nepali New. Newari NP. New Persian NIA New Indo-Aryan Nir. Nirukta (5) Nur. Nuristani (Kafiri) OP. Old Persian O.Pers. Old Persian Osset. Ossetic Panj. Panjabi Pkt. Prakrit PS paippalAda saMhitA (2 W) PSK paippalAda saMhitA, Kashmir MS. RV Rgveda saMhitA (1, Greater Panjab) RVKh Rgveda khila (2 W) SaDvB SadviMza brAhmaNa (4 W) SaMh. saMhitA(s) Sant. Santali zA zAGkhAyana AraNyaka (4 C) SB SadviMza brAhmaNa ZB zatapatha brAhmaNa (4 E) ZBK zatapatha brAhmaNa, kANva recension (4 C) ZS zrautasUtra (5) Skt. Sanskrit Sum(er). Sumerian SU. sUtra(s) (5) Suzr. suzruta SV sAmaveda saMhitA (2 W) Suzr. suzruta StII Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik TA taittirIya AraNyaka (4 C) Tam. Tamil Tel. Telugu TB taittirIya brAhmaNa (4C) TB Tibeto-Burmese Tib. Tibetan Tib.-Burm. Tibeto-Burmese Toch. Tocharian TS taittirIya saMhitA (2 C) Up. upaniSad(s) (4) V. vIdEvdhAd (Vendidad) VAdhB vAdhUla brAhmaNa (anvAkhyAna) (4 C) Ved. Vedic Ved. Index Macdonell - Keith 1912 VS vAjasaneyi saMhitA (2 E) YV yajurveda (-saMhitA) (2) ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenla"ndischen Gesellschaft BILIOGRAPHY Allchin, F. R. and N. Hammond, The Archaeology of Afghanistan from the earliest times to the Timurid period. London, New York: Academic Press 1978. Allchin, F. R. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia. The Emergence of Cities and States. 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Bericht u"ber besondere Archaismen im Bangani, einer Western Pahari- Sprache. Mu"nchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 49, 1988, 173-200 ---, Bericht u"ber grammatische Archaismen im Bangani, Mu"nchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft 50, 1989, 159-218 Zvelebil, K. The descent of the Dravidians. International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics 1-2, 1972, 56-63 ---, Review of McAlpin 1981, JAOS 105, 1985, 364-372 ---, Dravidian Linguistics: an Introduction. Pondicherry: Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture 1990 FOOTNOTES ========== (1) Settlement in Gandhara/Panjab: early books 5, 6 up to Yamuna/Ganga, e.g. atri poem 5.52.17; the relatively old poem 6.45.13 has gAGgya, next to chieftain bRbu. (2) Oberlies' criticism is written from an IE-centered point of view similar to that of Mayrhofer (EWA). This is fine from the point of view of someone who has to write an etymological dictionary of OIA; however, due to the clear attestation of cultural, ethnical and religious amalagamation of IIr/IA and local elements visible in the RV, the existence of such a large number of 'foreign' words must not be minimized in its importance. Nor does Oberlies offer an explanation or analysis of the remaining 250 words; they are simply 'non-IA". In a similar vein, R.P. Das has written a much more 'engaged' review of Kuiper's book, tellingly entitled 'The hunt for foreign words in the gveda' (IIJ 38, 1995, 207-238), which induced Kuiper to write a well-deserved, rather scathing reply in the same volume. It is difficult to understand, in view of the well-known evidence (added to in this paper), how one can regard the language (and religion, culture) of the gvedic Arya as 'relatively free from foreign influences' (Oberlies 1994: 347). "Pristine" languages and cultures do not exist, nor did they at c. 1500 BCE. (3) McAlpin 1981 is based on the lexico-statistic calculation of P. Gardner 1980; he distinguishes: Proto-Drav.: South Drav./Central Drav. - Brahui 4100-3000 BC PDr-1 : SDr/CDr - Kurukh-Malto 2800-1900 BC PDr-2 : SDr - CDr (Kolami, Naiki, Parji) 1500-1100 BC PDr-3 : SDr I - SDr II (Tamil, Telugu) 1000-900 BC. (4) It has to be observed that the boar does not play a role in the Indus civilization: "apparently not domesticated, not used in Indus economy" Kenoyer 1998: 165; this rather seems to be an eastern phenomenon (thus Munda?); cf. below Munda and Sino-Tib. 'pig' and cf. the ancient boar cult on the Nicobar Islands. (5) Pali milAca is influenced by a 'tribal' name, pizAca, as is Sindhi milindu, milidu by pulinda; the word has been further 'abbreviated' by avoiding the difficult cluster ml- : Prakrit mecha, miccha, Kashmiri mIi~c.(h), Bengali mech (a Tib.-Burm tribe) and perhaps Pashai mec@ if not < *mEcca 'defective' (Turner, CDIAL 10389. -- Parpola 1994: 174 has attempted a Dravidian explanation. He understands meluHHa (var. melaHHa) as Drav. *mElakam [mElaxam] 'high country' (= Baluchistan) (=ta-milakam) and points to Neo-Assyr. baluHHu 'galbanum', sinda 'wood from Sindh'. He traces mlech, milakkha back to *mlekS, which is seen as agreeing, with central Drav. metathesis with *mlExa = mElaxa-m. Kuiper 1991:24 indicates not infrequent elision of (Dravid.) -a- when taken over into Skt. -- Shafer 1954 has a Tib-Burm. etymology *mltSe; Southworth 1990: 223 reconstructs PDrav. 2 *mu.z.i/mi.z.i 'say, speak, utter', DEDR 4989, tami.l. 'Tamil' < 'own speech'. (6) The earliest archaeologically found rice is said to come from Koldihwa near Allahabad (c. 5440/5430 BCE or even earlier); this has been doubted. A more probable date is c. 4000 BCE, at Chirand in Bihar. (7) Southworth 1990: 229, n.10: PIA *camala/cAvala < TB ca-? (dza); cf. Southworth 1974, with an early Drav. substrate in the northwest and in the Gangetic plains: < Tib.-Burm. *cA + vAl/vAr < Drav. vari? -- Other IA words for 'rice' (oryza sativa): OIA taNDula < Drav. (Southworth 1988: 660); OIA zAli < Tib.-Burm. cau- / Austr. Csamaq (Benedict 1990); P.Drav.1 *manji(k) DEDR 3790, 'rice plant', but also 'seed' in Kurukh. (8) Benedict 1972: 123 [@bras, '@bras]; cf. also TB *mruw 'grain, seed' Benedict 43: no.150 Tib. bru 'grain' (and Nepal. inscriptions, with -brU, -bU, see below), and (?) Lushai buh 'boiled rice'. (9) Southworth 1990: 229 n. 9. - In Drav. the word for 'rice' cannot be reconstructed for the early stages (PDrav. 1), where only the meaning 'seed' is found: Kurukh manj 'seed in general' and Tamil arici 'seed' in: Elav-arici 'cardamom seed' DEDR 768. -- Cf. also Guj. varI "particular kind of grain", Mar. varI 'grain Coix barbata', Pkt. varaia 'a kind of rice'; CDIAL 11328 varI, -- all on the Drav. trail South from Sindh. (10) Ved. vrIhi has been supplanted in NIA almost everywhere by Tib.-Burm. CDIAL 4749 *cAmala/cAvala, Pkt. caul (pl.), cavala, and NIA bhAt 'cooked rice' (Southworth 1988: 666); for this see Benedict 1972: 28 no. 66 'to eat', Kanauri za, Garo tSha 'eat', Lushai fa, fAng, Bahing dz'a, Newari jA 'cooked rice', jAki 'uncooked rice' (cf. Lushai caw 'cooked rice', caw ciar); the Tib.-Burm. word apparently is a loan from Austro-Thai: *Csamaq, s. Benedict 1990: 175. (11) Benedict 1972: 149 n. 408, 491-2 Tib.-Burm. *may as early loan-word from Austro-Thai, e.g. Indones. *imay 'rice' (but O.Jpn. yo"ne, Jpn. ine, -shine 'rice plant' < *yinai, according to Benedict 1990: 234; cf. also ne 'root'); Chin. miei < *mi@r 'rice (paddy)', Bodo-Garo *m[a,e]y; Karen *may; cf. Tib.-Burm. *s-min 'ripe, cooked' ) Benedict 1972: 106 $ 432 (< Proto-Miao-Yao *snang 'cooked rice'?, see Benedict 1992:234). (12) Benedict 1990: 43 reconstructs Proto-W.-Malayo-Polynes. (Hesperonesian) *pajay (Mal. padi, Jav. pari, cf. the Engl. loan paddy; however he also has (1990: 77) Proto-Austrones. *pagr[@]y, that differs from the S. Asian/Central Asian cluster *vrjhi/bras by a transposed(?) -r-, (perhaps: Austric **w-r@ji / *pa-Cj/gr@y > *pagr@y, *pajay??). (13) Benedict 1990 assumes Proto-Austro-Thai *krumay, whence Jpn. kome, kuma(-shine). In connection with the Tib.-Burm. and Sinitic forms (*mi, may, Benedict 1972) a compound **kru + **may may be construed. The proto-form **kru seems to be the source for the words for 'rice' in Sino-Tibetan, Austro-Asiatic and Austro-Thai (including Austronesian). (14) The Austro-Asiat. words still are very close to those in Austro-Thai: PMunda *runG-ku(g/b) < Austro-As. *@rig, 'millet, Panicum militare'. Pinnow 1959: 96 $ 139 derives *ruG from Kharia DuruG 'to pound rice' etc. (p. 92 $ 116), and -ku(b) from Sant. hoRo, Mundari huRu etc. (p.122 $ 244), cf. also Kharia kho~sRo~ pe etc. (p. 171 $ 370). -- In Munda there is, next to Kharia romkub, also Juang ru(n)kU, Sora ruGkU-n, Bondo/Remo, Parengi ruGku, Gutob rukU (Pinnow 1959: 96), and in eastern Austro-As.: Khasi khau, Mon unko, Khmer oGkor; - Thai khAu may be a loan word from Austro-As.? Further: Palaung ra-kO, Kuoi aGkau, Sue raGkao, Palaung ra-kO, Palaung-wa unko, Sakai: Krau (Ketiar) uG-kuok, Sakai also: c@nroG 'husked rice', Krau (Kuala Tembeling) r@-kua etc. (Pinnow 1959: 96, Kuiper 1962: 51f.). The variation in Austro-As., already observed by Kuiper, points to a proto-form *(r)(n)-k(h)u. - Thus, Dhimal (= Tib.-Burm. Kiranti, eastern Himalaya) UnkhU 'rice', according to Kuiper < Munda *runku. (15) Details: kInAza 'plough man' EWA: 'non-IE'; kInAra only RV 10.106.10; -- the following words all mean 'fisher' kevarta/kaivarta VS/TB; Pali, Pkt. kevaTTa, *kevATa, CDIAL 3469 and add., 3479; Drav. according to Burrow, KEWA I 566, DEDR 1252 Tam. kayal 'carp', Mal. kayal 'a fish', etc.; kai- in kevarta; -- dAza VS, dazera lex. CDIAL 6314 a jAt tribe: DahA; -- daivara VS, see dhI, CDIAL add. 6819 NIA, Kuiper, KEWA II 105 ~ tivara (lex.) = tribal name? -- puJjiSTha also 'bird catcher?', MS, VS, pauJjiSTha AV; no NIA etym.; -- bainda ~ SRbinda, Kuiper 1991, EWA; -- mainAla < Drav. mIn 'fish'; --- zauSkala ~ zuSka 'dried up'? -- Further: talava 'musician' VS ~ taD Epic 'to play a muscal instrument'? Kuiper ZII 8,1931, 251; -- ADambara-ghAta 'drummer' VS, A- ZB; Kuiper 1948: 85 f. from Proto-Munda, dundubhy-AghAta 'drummer' (RV), B EWA: onomatopoetic, Kuiper 1948: 84 Munda; vINA-ghAthin 'lute player', also in Iran?, see EWA, Mayrhofer 1968, CDIAL 12048; vINA-vAda 'ditto'; -- pAlAgala 'messenger' B, -kalI S. no NIA continuants; -- kaNTakI-kArI 'worker in thorns' VS; k- "thorn" B, Iran?, Greek akantha? -- bidala-kArI 'basket maker' VS, EWA "not clear", but cf. DEDR 5432 viL 'to split'; -- sirIn 'weaver?' only RV 10.71.9 (Ved. Ind. 585-6); -- gaNaka 'astrologer' VS: RV, gaNa, *gRna, CDIAL 3993 and add.; Greek ageirO 'collect'; Kuiper 1948: 54 Munda; -- kusIdin 'money lender' B, kusIda KS, TS; Pali kusIta 'lazy', etym.? ku+sad > Pali ko-sajja?? -- paraka? a tribal name? VS "Bhilla" in commentary, EWA ~ paNi? -- paulkasa? VS a mixed tribe, Kuiper 1948: 54ff. -- Indo-Iran.: malaga 'washer man' < AV, mala: IE *mel; -- upala-prakSinI from IA upalA 'mill stone' TS: kulAla 'potter' MS, KS, VS; EWA ~ RV kula 'hole, hollow', in mahAkula, Pashai kOlAla 'potter' CDIAL 3341; -- kRSI-vala RV a-, AV kArSivaNa : suffix variation!; -- vaNij RV, vANija KS 'trader' < van-ij 'winning goods' according to EWA, Mayrhofer 1968. (16) Now there is one still older inscription which indicates Sanskritization of the valley already around the time of Jayavarman, c. 200 CE (see Kashinath Tamot and Ian Alsop, The Kushan-period Sculpture from the reign of Jaya Varma-, A.D. 185, Kathmandu, Nepal: Asian Arts, July 10, 1996, at: www.asianart.com/index.html). (C) COPYRIGHT NOTICE: A COPY OF THIS ARTICLE MAY BE MADE FOR PRIVATE STUDY. ALL COPIES MADE FOR WHATEVER PURPOSE MUST INCLUDE THIS COPYRIGHT NOTICE. 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